Comprehensive Ecology Notes: Key Concepts and Study Tips
Objectives
This blog post provides readers with the following objectives. The reader will be able to:
o Discuss basic concepts in ecology.o Outline the general characteristics of aquatic and terrestrial habitatso Explain the effects of abiotic and biotic factors on life in aquatic and terrestrial habitatso Explain how organisms in aquatic and terrestrial habitats are adapted to their habitatso Identify the components of a food chain, food web and ecological pyramids.o Explain how food chains and food webs can be determined.o Identify the different symbiotic relationships
Ecology
Ecology is the scientific study of the interaction or inter-relationship of living organisms with each other and with their environment.
Ecological Terms
1. Environment: The environment is the total surroundings of an organism including all the biotic and abiotic factors that affect the organism in one way or the other.
i. Biotic factors (living components) include genes, cells, organisms, members of the same species and other species that share a habitat.
ii. Abiotic or non-living factors includes water, light, temperature, humidity and rainfall.
2. Habitat: Habitat is a particular locality within an environment, where organism can live successfully. E.g., pond or forest.
3. Species: is a group of organisms which can interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
4. Population: is a group of organisms of the same species living together in the same environment or habitat e.g., population of monkeys in a forest.
5. Community: is the interactions among different species that inhabit the same geographic area. Most often communities are named after the dominant species.
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Trophic Levels
Species are categorized as autotrophs (or primary producers), heterotrophs (or consumers), and Detritivores (or decomposers). Each of these constitutes a trophic level.
Primary Producers (Autotrophs): are organisms that produce their own food by photosynthesis. Plants capture energy from sunlight and use it to combine carbon dioxide and water to produce carbohydrates. The rate at which energy is bound in organic material by photosynthesis per unit area of vegetation is called primary production.
The photosynthesis carried out by all the plants in an ecosystem is called the gross primary production (GPP). About 48–60% of the GPP is consumed in plant respiration. The remainder, that portion of GPP that is not used up by respiration, is known as the net primary production (NPP). NPP = GPP - respiration (by plants).
The energy incorporated into plant tissues (net primary production) is either consumed by animals or it remains uneaten when the plant dies and becomes detritus.
Consumers (Heterotrophs): are organisms that feed on others for nourishment and energy.
1. Primary consumers: these are organisms (herbivores) that consume plant tissues. E.g. grasshopper, goat, sheep, fish, parrots etc.
2 Secondary consumers: animals that feed on primary consumers (i.e., carnivores that feed exclusively on herbivores). E.g., toad, lizard, dogs, cats, snakes
3. Tertiary consumers: these are animals that feed on secondary consumers. E.g., hawk, lion. Omnivores such as human or bush pig may feed on both plants and animals. An omnivore can be a primary consumer or secondary consumer.
Decomposers: these are organisms that breakdown dead organic materials and absorb simple food material to obtain energy. They include bacteria and fungi. Decomposers play a pivotal role in the nitrogen and carbon cycles. The carbon and nutrients in dead organic matter are broken down by processes known as decomposition. This releases nutrients back into the soil and returns carbon dioxide to the atmosphere (or water) where it can be used by plants.
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The Food Chain: Examples and Importance
Food chain is feeding relationship involving transfer of energy from one trophic level to another. Food chain is also defined as the feeding relationship in which energy is transfer from plants through series of organisms, with each stage feeding on the preceding stage and providing food for the succeeding one. Food chains trace the transfer of energy from one organism to another.
Components of a Food Chain
Examples of Food Chains
Grassland Food Chain
- Grass (Producer) → Grasshopper (Primary Consumer) → Frog (Secondary Consumer) → Snake (Tertiary Consumer) → Hawk (Apex Predator)
Aquatic Food Chain
- Phytoplankton (Producer) → Zooplankton (Primary Consumer) → Small Fish (Secondary Consumer) → Larger Fish (Tertiary Consumer) → Shark (Apex Predator)
Forest Food Chain
- Oak Tree (Producer) → Caterpillar (Primary Consumer) → Bird (Secondary Consumer) → Fox (Tertiary Consumer) → Wolf (Apex Predator)
Importance of Food Chains
Nutrient Cycling
Food chains are essential for the cycling of nutrients in ecosystems. When organisms die, decomposers break them down, returning vital nutrients to the soil, which are then used by plants to grow.
Energy Flow
Energy flows through an ecosystem via food chains. Producers convert solar energy into chemical energy through photosynthesis. This energy is then transferred from one trophic level to the next, supporting various forms of life.
Ecological Balance
Food chains help maintain ecological balance. Predators control the population of prey species, preventing overgrazing or overpopulation, which can lead to ecosystem degradation.
Biodiversity
Healthy food chains contribute to biodiversity. A variety of species at different trophic levels ensure a resilient and robust ecosystem capable of withstanding environmental changes and disturbances.
For more detailed information on food chains and their role in ecosystems, visit these resources:
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The Food Web: Complexity and Importance
A food web is a complex network of interconnected food chains within an ecosystem. It illustrates how different organisms are related through feeding relationships, showing that most organisms consume and are consumed by multiple species. Unlike a linear food chain, a food web provides a more comprehensive view of how energy and nutrients circulate in an ecosystem.
Components of a Food Web
- Producers (Autotrophs): Plants, algae, and some bacteria that produce their own food through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis.
- Primary Consumers (Herbivores): Animals that eat producers, such as deer, insects, and rabbits.
- Secondary Consumers (Carnivores and Omnivores): Animals that eat primary consumers, such as birds, frogs, and small fish.
- Tertiary Consumers (Top Carnivores): Predators that eat secondary consumers, such as hawks, larger fish, and wolves.
- Decomposers (Detritivores): Organisms like bacteria, fungi, and earthworms that break down dead material, returning nutrients to the soil.
Examples of Food Webs
Grassland Food Web
- Producers: Grass, wildflowers
- Primary Consumers: Grasshoppers, rabbits
- Secondary Consumers: Frogs, snakes
- Tertiary Consumers: Hawks, foxes
- Decomposers: Fungi, bacteria
Aquatic Food Web
- Producers: Phytoplankton, algae
- Primary Consumers: Zooplankton, small fish
- Secondary Consumers: Larger fish, jellyfish
- Tertiary Consumers: Sharks, dolphins
- Decomposers: Marine bacteria, detritus feeders
Forest Food Web
- Producers: Trees, shrubs
- Primary Consumers: Caterpillars, deer
- Secondary Consumers: Birds, small mammals
- Tertiary Consumers: Owls, wolves
- Decomposers: Fungi, earthworms
Importance of Food Webs
Ecosystem Stability
Food webs contribute to the stability and resilience of ecosystems. They allow for multiple pathways for energy and nutrient flow, which can help ecosystems withstand environmental changes and disturbances.
Biodiversity
Food webs support biodiversity by promoting a variety of species at different trophic levels. This diversity ensures that ecological functions are maintained even if some species decline or disappear.
Nutrient Cycling
Through the interactions depicted in food webs, nutrients are recycled efficiently within ecosystems. Decomposers play a critical role in breaking down organic matter, making nutrients available to producers and sustaining the entire food web.
Energy Flow
Food webs illustrate the flow of energy from producers to various consumers and ultimately to decomposers. This flow of energy is crucial for the survival and reproduction of organisms within the ecosystem.
Conservation and Management
Understanding food webs is essential for conservation and ecosystem management. It helps identify key species and interactions that are vital for ecosystem health, guiding efforts to protect and restore habitats.
Learn More About Food Webs
For more detailed information on food webs and their ecological significance, visit these resources:
Visualizing a Food Web
Methods of Determining Food Chains and Food webs
Direct observation
This is where the feeding habits of the same species are observed in the community e.g. butterfly sucking fruit juices. From such observation food chains and food webs may be constructed.
Gut examination
This involves capturing, killing and dissecting animals to obtain samples of their gut contents. This provides direct information about the organisms on which each consumer feeds.
Radioactive or tracer methods
It involves the use of labeled radioactive food substances in the field. The labeled food may be in the form of radioactive isotopes of phosphorus (P32) or Sulphur (S32) which are readily incorporated into inorganic fertilizers. The labeled fertilizer is absorbed from the soil by the roots of the plants and incorporated into plant materials. By using sensitive counters, the path of P32 can be traced. Animals that are found to be radioactive may have consumed material from the plant or eaten one or more animals that already fed on the plant. Herbivores e.g. grasshopper, become radioactive first followed later by the predators.
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Energy Flow
It refers to the flow of energy through a food chain. The transfer of energy from producer to primary consumer is only 10% efficient. The reason is that
• some of the food eaten will not be digested, as it will be egested as feces
Therefore, primary consumers get about 10% of the energy produced by plants, while secondary consumers get 1% and tertiary consumers get 0.1%. This means the top consumer of a food chain receives the least energy, as a lot of the food chain's energy has been lost between trophic levels. This loss of energy at each level limits typical food chains to only four to six links.
Ecological Pyramids
Ecological pyramid is a graphical representation which shows the relationship between biomass or biological productivity and trophic levels in a given ecosystem. Ecological pyramids begin with producers on the bottom and proceed through the various trophic levels.
Types of Ecological Pyramids
- Pyramid of Numbers
- Pyramid of Biomass
- Pyramid of Energy
Pyramid of Numbers
It shows graphically the population of each trophic level in a food chain. The length of each bar is proportional to the number organisms. The number of organisms reduces progressively from the base to the top. The pyramid decreases markedly at each higher level. It must be noted that, although the number of individuals decreases, the size of the individuals generally increases.
o One instance where this is not the case is where the producer is large and supports a community of consumers. This results in an inverted pyramid.
Disadvantages of Pyramid of Number
i. Each individual is regarded as one regardless of size. Therefore, one grass plant is equal one elephant in a pyramid of number.
Pyramid of Biomass
Pyramid of Productivity or Energy
Healthy ecosystem produces a standard ecological pyramid, because for ecosystem to be stable, there must be more energy at lower trophic levels than there is at higher trophic levels. When energy is transferred to the next trophic level, only 10% of it is used to build new level. The remaining ninety percent goes to metabolic processes or is dissipated as heat. This energy loss means that productivity pyramids are never inverted. Each step will be 10% the size of the previous step (100, 10, 1, 0.1, 0.01).
Examples of Ecological Pyramids
Grassland Ecosystem (Pyramid of Numbers)
- Producers: Grasses
- Primary Consumers: Grasshoppers
- Secondary Consumers: Frogs
- Tertiary Consumers: Snakes
- Top Consumers: Hawks
Forest Ecosystem (Pyramid of Biomass)
- Producers: Trees
- Primary Consumers: Deer
- Secondary Consumers: Wolves
- Tertiary Consumers: Bears
Aquatic Ecosystem (Pyramid of Energy)
- Producers: Phytoplankton
- Primary Consumers: Zooplankton
- Secondary Consumers: Small Fish
- Tertiary Consumers: Larger Fish
- Top Consumers: Sharks
Importance of Ecological Pyramids
Visualizing Ecosystem Structure
Ecological pyramids provide a clear and simple way to visualize the structure of ecosystems, showing the relationships and relative sizes of different trophic levels.
Understanding Energy Flow and Nutrient Cycling
These pyramids help in understanding how energy flows through an ecosystem and how nutrients are cycled. They highlight the inefficiencies in energy transfer between trophic levels and the importance of producers in supporting entire ecosystems.
Identifying Ecosystem Health
The shape and structure of ecological pyramids can indicate the health and stability of ecosystems. For instance, a disrupted or heavily altered pyramid may suggest ecological imbalances or environmental stress.
Conservation and Management
Ecological pyramids are useful tools for conservation and ecosystem management. They help identify key species and trophic levels that need protection to maintain ecosystem balance and health.
Learn More About Ecological Pyramids
For more detailed information on ecological pyramids and their significance, visit these resources:
- National Geographic: Ecological Pyramids
- BBC Bitesize: Pyramids of Biomass
- Khan Academy: Ecological Pyramids
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Ecological Factors and Ecological Instruments
The environment of an organism includes all the living and non-living things that surround it. They all affect the organism in some way and are referred to as ecological factors.
These factors can be grouped into abiotic (physical) factors and biotic (biological) factors.
Abiotic Factors
These form the non-living part of the habitat or ecosystem, which include rainfall, temperature, wind, pressure, light intensity, pH, humidity, oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration, altitude and slope of land.
Temperature
Light
Rainfall
Rainfall determines salinity of aquatic habitats which determines distributions and abundances of organisms.
Affects environmental temperature which affects distribution and activity of organisms.
It makes water available to organisms
Rainfall variations can result in drought or floods which destroy vegetation animals.
It determines water level in streams, springs, rivers etc. which affects life of organisms
It determines degree of turbidity (transparency) of water bodies which affects abundance and distribution of organisms.
It determines level of soil erosion which affects growth and distribution of plants
Humidity
Wind
Hydrogen ion Concentration (pH)
Carbon Dioxide & Oxygen Concentration
Salinity
Altitude
Biotic Factors
These factors are concerned with the way in which living organisms interact with one another in the habitat. These interactions may have both useful and harmful results. Some examples of useful biotic factors are:
Harmful biotic factors include:
• flesh-eating animals (carnivores) which feed on other animals
• transmission of pathogens e.g., white fly is a vector of the virus that causes cassava mosaic
• parasites live on or inside a living host: the host may tolerate it or eventually die
List of Ecological Factors and Ecological Instruments
Factors |
Instruments |
Temperature |
Thermometer |
Humidity |
Hygrometer |
Light intensity |
Photometer |
Rainfall |
Rain gauge |
Pressure |
Barometer |
pH |
pH meter |
Wind speed |
Anemometer |
Wind
direction |
Wind vane or wind gauge |
Turbidity |
Secchi disc |
Density
of water |
Hydrometer |
Tide |
Tide
gauge |
Altitude |
Altimeter |
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Biological Association
Some organisms form close relationships with other organism. The
relationships may be intra-specific (between organisms of the same species) or
interspecific (between organisms of different species).
Symbiosis: is an interspecific relationship where the body of one organism provides a habitat for another. Symbiosis may be commensalism, mutualism or parasitism.
Commensalism
Commensalism is a close relationship between two organisms of different species, which is beneficial to one (commensal) but does not affect the other, the host. The gain may be in terms of food or free transport. Example:
o A small fish, the remora lives as a commensal on the shark, attached by its sucker. When the shark feeds, remora detaches itself and feed on scraps of food discarded by the shark. The shark neither benefits nor harmed by the relationship.
Mutualism
Mutualism is a close relationship between organisms of different species in which both partners benefit. It may be a relationship between two plants, two animals or between a plant and an animal. Example;
o Lichen (association between an alga and a fungus). The alga obtains support and shelter from the fungus whiles the fungus obtains food manufacture by the algae.
o Bacteria living the intestine of ruminants. The ruminants provide protection and nutrients for the bacteria, whiles the bacteria digest cellulose for the ruminants.
o The association between hermit crab and sea anemone. The tentacles of the sea anemone protect the crab from predators. Anemone derives food by picking up pieces of food that float away from the crab.
o The nitrogen fixing bacterium (rhizobium), which lives in the root nodules of leguminous plants obtain food and protection. The bacterium converts atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates which are readily absorbed by plants for the synthesis of proteins.
Parasitism
Parasitism is close relationship between organisms, in which one, the parasite lives in or on the body of the other, the host, deriving benefit from it and causing harm to it. The parasites may or may not kill the host. The association may be ectoparasite or endoparasites.
o Ectoparasites: live on the surface of the host e.g. lice living on human head, ticks living on a cow.
o Endoparasites: live in the body of their host e.g. tapeworms, Ascaris living in the small intestine of man.
Parasites have special adaptations that enable them to survive. They may have high reproductive rate, organs of attachment (e.g. haustoria of dodder). They may also have boring devices used to enter the host (nematode worms). Parasites which obtain their nutrient parasitically until the host dies and adopt a saprophytic mode of feeding are called facultative parasites.
Saprophytism
Saprophytism is a type of nutrition, where organism obtains nutrients from dead organic matters. Organisms that practice saprophytism are referred to as Saprophytes e.g. fungi and bacteria. They play pivotal role in the ecosystem by acting as decomposers. They cannot manufacture their own food because they lack chlorophyll. Saprophytes (such as Rhizopus), secrete digestive enzymes unto dead organic material. The enzymes break down the food into soluble components. The products are absorbed through the body surface of the saprophytes. The digestion occurs outside the body of the organism and so it is called extracellular digestion.
Epiphytism
This is a type of association which occurs between plants, usually between a tree and a much smaller green plant called the epiphytes. Epiphytism occurs in the forest where the leaves of the big trees form a canopy or shade over smaller trees. Epiphytes depend on the host for only support. Epiphytes are capable of photosynthesis and live high on the tree branches. The epiphytes root systems absorb nutrients from the water that drips down host stems.
Competition
This is a kind of relationship where two or more organisms demand the same environmental resources that are in short supply. Competition between organisms of the same species is referred to as intraspecific competition while competition between different species is called interspecific competition. E.g. Plants competing for light in the forest
Predation
Predation is a relationship between two animals in which one, the predator, hunts and kills the other for food, the prey. Predator-prey relationships are important in that they affect the population sizes of predators and prey. Predators have adaptations to enable them capture prey whiles the prey is also adapted to protect itself from predators.
Mechanism Preys Use to Escape from Predators
Importance of predation
2. Checking the population
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