CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION

 Objectives  

This  blog post provides readers with the following objectives. The reader will be able to:

o   Explain some terms under cell cycle

o   Outline the process of the cell cycle

o   Describe the process mitosis and meiosis.


CELL CYCLE

The cell cycle is the sequence of events that takes place in cells. It leads to cell division and replication. In eukaryotes, the cell cycle can be divided into four distinct phases: G1 phase, S phase (synthesis), G2 phase and M phase. The G1, S phase and G2 phase together are known as interphase. The M phase or the mitotic phase (cell division) occurs after interphase. Cell division consists of two phases: nuclear division followed by cytokinesis. Nuclear division divides the genetic material in the nucleus, while cytokinesis divides the cytoplasm.

There are two kinds of nuclear division: mitosis and meiosis.


Stages in cell cycle and cell division

INTERPHASE

It is the resting stage or the non dividing phase of the cell cycle. It takes about 90% of the cell's life span.

The cell prepares itself, grows and accumulates nutrients for DNA replication and division.

The nucleus is visible and the chromosomes are uncoiled and invisible. The cells grow by producing proteins and cytoplasmic organelles. 

 

The Stages of Interphase

Interphase consists of three main stages:

  1. G1 Phase (Gap 1): During the G1 phase, the cell grows and synthesizes proteins necessary for DNA replication. This stage is crucial for cell function and prepares the cell for the next phase. Learn more about the G1 Phase in Cell Cycle from Khan Academy.

  2. S Phase (Synthesis): In the S phase, DNA replication occurs. The cell’s genetic material is duplicated, ensuring that each daughter cell will receive an identical set of chromosomes. This process is fundamental for genetic continuity. For a detailed explanation of DNA replication, visit DNA Replication on National Institutes of Health (NIH) (.gov).

  3. G2 Phase (Gap 2): The G2 phase involves further cell growth and the production of proteins needed for mitosis. During this phase, the cell checks for any DNA errors and makes necessary repairs. This ensures that the cell is ready for the mitotic phase. Explore the G2 Phase and its Functions on Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology for more insights.


The Importance of Interphase

Interphase is crucial for several reasons:

  • Cell Growth: The cell increases in size and synthesizes essential proteins, enabling it to function properly and support division.
  • DNA Replication: Accurate duplication of the genetic material is vital for maintaining genetic integrity and preventing mutations.
  • Preparation for Division: Interphase ensures that the cell has all the necessary components to successfully undergo mitosis or meiosis, leading to the production of daughter cells.


Disorders Related to Interphase

Errors during interphase can lead to various disorders, including cancer. Abnormalities in DNA replication and repair mechanisms can result in uncontrolled cell growth. For an overview of cancer related to cell cycle dysregulation, visit Cancer and the Cell Cycle on the National Cancer Institute’s website.


MITOSIS

Mitosis is a type of cell division in which a single cell produces two genetically identical daughter cells. The daughter cells contain the same genetic material as the parent cell. It is the way in which new body cells are produced for growth and repair.

There are four stages of mitosis: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase.


Prophase

1.  The chromosomes condense and become visible. 

2. Each chromosome is seen as two chromatids joined together at a point called centromere.   

3. The nucleolus disappears and nuclear membrane breaks down. 

4.  Centrioles move to opposite ends of the cell.    

5.   Spindle fibers extend from the centrioles.


Metaphase

1. Chromosomes arranged at the equator of the cell.

2 Spindle fibers attach to kinetochores of chromosomes.

Small disc-shaped structure at the surface of the centromere is called kinetochore


Anaphase

1. Spindles begin to shorten and separate the sister chromatids at the centromere. 

2. Spindle fibers continue to shorten, pulling the chromatids to opposite poles. This ensures that each daughter cell gets identical sets of chromosomes


Telophase 

1.  Chromatids reach the poles. 

2. The nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappears. 

3.   The chromosomes uncoil. 

4.   The spindle apparatus breaks down. 

5.  Cytokinesis may also begin during this stage 


Cytokinesis

Cytokinesis is not a phase of mitosis. It is a separate process necessary for completing cell division. 

In animal cells a cleavage furrow containing a contractile ring develops at the equatorial plane separating the nuclei. 

In plant cells, a cell plate is formed across the middle of the cell to divide the cytoplasm and cell wall is between the two daughter cells.


Significance of Mitosis

1.       It brings about growth.

2.      The daughter cells have the same genetic material as that of the parent cell. 

3.       It is responsible for development of a single-celled zygote into a multicellular organism. 

4.       The daughter cells have the same characters as those of the parent cell.

5.        It helps in repairing and replacing dead or damaged cells.

6.     It’s a means of reproduction in unicellular organisms. 

7.    It may result in uncontrolled growth of cells leading to cancer or tumor.


Difference between Mitosis in Plant and Animal Cells

Plant cell

Animal cell

Centriole is absent

Centriole present

Does not form aster

Aster is formed

Cell plate is formed to divide daughter cell

Does not form cell plate

Occurs in meristem

Occurs in all cells


MEIOSIS

Meiosis is a reduction division of a diploid cell to form haploid daughter cells. Haploid cells contain half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. It takes place in all sexually reproducing organisms. Meiosis is restricted to the gonads or sex cells. Meiosis is divided into meiosis I and meiosis II.


Meiosis I 

It involves the splitting of parent cell and separation of the homologous chromosomes from each other into different cells.

The resulting daughter cells contain one entire haploid set of chromosomes.

It produces two haploid cells (N chromosomes, 23 in humans).


Prophase I

1.    Prophase I is the longest phase of meiosis I.

2.   The chromosomes condense and become visible within the nucleus 

3. The nuclear membrane begins to disintegrate.

4.      The centrioles form and move toward the poles.

5.    In this phase, there is exchange of DNA between homologous chromosomes, this process is known as homologous recombination.


Synapse and exchange of genetic material in Prophase I of Meiotic Cell Division

6.      The homologous chromosomes pair up forming bivalents or tetrads. Each chromosome comes from each parent.

7.      Pairing of homologous chromosomes is called synapsis. At the stage of synapsis, the non-sister chromatids may cross-over at points called chiasmata.  Crossing over result in exchange of fragments.

8.     Crossing over serves to increase genetic diversity by creating four unique chromatids


 Metaphase I

1.  Microtubules or spindle fibers grow from the centrioles.    

2.   The bivalents line up along the cell equator and attach to spindle fibers at the centromeres.


Anaphase I

The homologous chromosomes separate and move towards the opposite pole of the cell while sister chromatids remain associated at their centromeres.


Telophase I

1. The nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear.     

2.  The spindle fibers disappear.   

3.    The chromosomes uncoil and return back to the chromatin stage.

4.  The process of cytokinesis occurs, creating two haploid daughter cells. 

5.    The daughter cells have half the number of chromosomes.


Meiosis II

Meiosis II is an equational division similar to mitosis, where the sister chromatids split forming 4 haploid cells, two from each daughter cells of meiosis I. 


Prophase II 

1.  The nucleoli and the nuclear envelope disappear.

2.     Chromosomes condense.

3.     The centrioles move toward the poles.


Metaphase II

1.      The spindle fibres grow from the centrioles and attach to the centromeres. 

2. The sister chromatids line up along the cell equator. 

3.   The equatorial plane formed here is rotated by 90 degrees, compared to meiosis I and is perpendicular to the previous equatorial plane.


Anaphase II

1. The centromeres break and sister chromatids separate.

2.   The sister chromosomes move towards the opposing poles.


Telophase II

1.   Chromatids reach the opposite poles of the cells.

2. The nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappears. 

3.    The chromosomes uncoil.  

4.    The spindle apparatus breaks down.  

5. Cleavage or cell wall forms which eventually produces a total of four daughter cells, each cell having haploid set of chromosomes.


Significance of meiosis

1. It ensures continuity of species and brings about variation.

2. It enables sexual recombination to occur by reducing the chromosome number by half.


 

Stages in Mitotic Cell Division

Drawing of stages of cell division in mitosis


Stages in Meiotic Cell Division

Illustrated digram of Meiotic Cell Division

Difference between Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis

Meiosis

Nucleus divides only once

Nucleus divides twice

Chromosome number is maintained

Chromosome number is halved

 No pairing of chromosomes

 Pairing occurs 

Chiasmata are never formed

Chiasmata are formed

Crossing - over never occurs/ no exchange of genetic materials

Crossing - over occurs /exchange of genetic materials occurs

Daughter cells identical to parent cell

Daughter cells generally different from parent cell

Two daughter cells are formed

Four daughter cells are formed

Chromosomes form single row at the equator

Chromosomes form double row at the equator

Occurs in somatic cell

Occurs in reproductive cell

Occurs in asexual reproduction

Occurs in sexual reproduction